Donkeys, Man's Forgotten Friend

 

Donkeys are intelligent, affectionate, healthy, long lived, and cheap to keep animals, so why are we now allowing them to die in record numbers?

Donkeys were first domesticated in Egypt about 6,000 years ago. Since their earliest association with mankind, they have been loyal and uncomplaining servants. An early Pakistani proverb states, “To carry a load without resting, to be not bothered by heat or cold, and always to be content: these things we can learn from a donkey”. Donkeys quickly spread from Egypt to all area cultures where they provided transportation, carried heavy loads on their back, served as draft animals, helped to plow the fields, to turn grist mills, and guarded livestock from predation. In addition, their milk and meat provided substance for the ancient family and still does for families today in many parts of the world.

Remarkable animal

Many breeds of donkey have been developed in the service of mankind. Donkeys range in size from the Miniature Mediterranean which stands only 36 inches at the shoulder, to the Mammoth Jack which can be 56 inches and even taller. They can have short, slick hair like the burro of the American southwest, or can have wooly long hair like the French Poitou. One thing they all have in common is their ability to endure heat and cold, lack of water and poor quality food. Pound for pound they are stronger than the horse and better climbers in hills and mountains. Their hooves are tougher and require less care than the hooves of horses. Donkeys can live up to 40 years (about twice as long as horses).

The perfect pet

The first donkey that I ever owned was a gift from a friend. My friend told me that during a hunting trip his brother had taken an ax handle and hit this donkey right between the eyes. Although it was a vicious and powerful blow, the brother was more hurt by this cowardly action than was the donkey. The donkey merely blinked and moved away, while the brother’s hand was bleeding and he reported considerable pain from the jarring impact of the blow.

I quickly renamed this donkey Genghis Kahn, because he put me in mind of the small Mongolian horses that the Mongols rode. When Genghis first arrived at my ½ acre pasture he was a bit leery of me, however, after two days of carrots, apples, back combing and ear scratching we became fast friends. Genghis would follow me about the pasture and nuzzle me each time I stopped. Often my young son would climb upon his back as he walked around the pasture. Genghis seemed to enjoy the companionship. Later, I would ride that brave little donkey on mountainous trails where he proved to be a strong, steady and dependable climber.

We decided to get Genghis a companion, which I purchased at an auction for $25. He was a three year old, standard size uncut jack who had been raised wild. Until a few days before the sale, he had never seen a human. Within two days of his arrival, he was completely gentle. My 12 -year-old son, Ryan, named him Black Jack.

On the third day Black Jack lived with us, Ryan and I argued about who would try to ride him first. I believed that Ryan should ride, as I was bigger, stronger and more capable of holding him with the rope. Ryan argued that I should ride due to the fact that I was heavier and he wouldn’t be able to buck as hard. However, I played the daddy card and with much trepidation Ryan got on; we waited for the rodeo to begin.

Much to our surprise he never bucked. He tiptoed forward, stopped and looked around not knowing exactly what to do. Then I had an idea; as Ryan rode Genghis and the danger seemed over, I boldly hopped upon Black Jack. He quickly got the clue from Genghis about what was expected from a respectable saddle donkey, and on that very day we rode up and down small hills for about an hour. Black Jack proved to be an even better riding donkey than Genghis.

The current crisis

Because of the severe drought in Texas and Oklahoma, there is not much grazing left. Ranchers have to buy hay to keep their cattle, sheep, goats and horses alive. Unfortunately, the donkey has been deemed to be expendable and is starving to death by the hundreds. Fortunately, organizations like the Peaceful Valley Donkey Ranch are doing their best to save this intelligent and friendly animal. It is possible to adopt rescued donkeys through this organization, or donate money to help in their efforts. If you can adopt, donate or share this article with a friend you will have the pleasure of perhaps saving one of these remarkable animals.

Sources: Sue Weaver, The Donkey Companion, 2008. Storey Publishing, LLC; First Edition edition. ISBN-10: 160342038X; ISBN-13: 978-1603420389.

Source: Lance Morton. http://suite101.com

Donkeys (Equus asinus)

History of the Domestication of Donkeys

The modern domestic donkey (Equus asinus) was bred from the wild African ass (E. africanus) in northeastern Africa during the predynastic period of Egypt, about 6,000 years ago. Two wild ass subspecies are thought to have had a role in the development of the modern donkey: the Nubian ass (Equus africanus africanus) and the Somali ass (E. africanus somaliensis), although recent mtDNA analysis suggests that only the Nubian ass contributed genetically to the domestic donkey. Both of these asses are still alive today, but both are listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List.

The donkey's relationship with the Egyptian civilization is well-documented. For example, murals in the tomb of the New Kingdom pharaoh Tutankhamun illustrate nobles participating in a wild ass hunt. However, the real importance of the donkey relates to its use as a pack animal. Donkeys are desert-adapted and can carry heavy loads through arid lands allowing pastoralists to move their households with their herds. In addition, donkeys proved ideal for the transport of food and trade goods throughout Africa and Asia.

Domestic Donkeys and Archaeology

Archaeological evidence used to identify domesticated donkeys includes changes in body morphology. Domestic donkeys are smaller than wild ones, and in particular they have smaller and less robust metacarpals (foot bones). In addition, donkey burials have been noted at some sites; such burials likely reflect the value of trusted domestic animals. Pathological evidence of damage to spinal columns resulting from donkey's use (maybe overuse) as pack animals is also seen on domestic donkeys, a situation not thought likely on their wild progenitors.

The earliest domesticated donkey bones identified archaeologically date to 4600-4000 BC, at the site of El-Omari, a predynastic Maadi site in Upper Egypt near Cairo. Articulated donkey skeletons have been found buried in special tombs within the cemeteries of several predynastic sites, including Abydos (ca. 3000 BC) and Tarkhan (ca. 2850 BC). Donkey bones also have been discovered at sites in Syria, Iran and Iraq between 2800-2500 BC. The site of Uan Muhuggiag in Libya has domestic donkey bones dated to ~3000 years ago.

Domestic Donkeys at Abydos

A 2008 study (Rossel et al.) examined 10 donkey skeletons buried at the predynastic site of Abydos (about ca 3000 BC). The burials were in three purposefully constructed brick tombs adjacent to the cult enclosure of an early (so far unnamed) Egyptian king. The donkey tombs lacked grave goods and in fact only contained articulated donkey skeletons.

An analysis of the skeletons, and comparison with modern and ancient animals revealed that the donkeys had been used as beasts of burden, evidenced by signs of strain on their vertebral bones. In addition, the body morphology of the donkeys was midway between wild asses and modern donkeys, leading researchers to argue that the domestication process was not complete by the end of the predynastic period, but instead continued as a slow process over periods of several centuries.

Donkey DNA

DNA sequencing of ancient, historic and modern samples of donkeys throughout northeastern Africa was reported (Kimura et al) in 2010, including data from the site of Uan Muhuggiag in Libya. This study suggests that domestic donkeys are derived solely from the Nubian wild ass.

Results of the testing demonstrate that Nubian and Somali wild asses have distinct mitochondrial DNA sequences. Historic domestic donkeys appear to be genetically identical to Nubian wild asses, suggesting that modern Nubian wild asses are actually survivors of previously domesticated animals.

Further, it seems likely that wild asses were domesticated several times, by cattle herders perhaps beginning as long ago as 8900-8400 calibrated years ago cal BP. Interbreeding between wild and domestic asses (called introgression) is likely to have continued throughout the domestication process. However, Bronze Age Egyptian asses (ca 3000 BC at Abydos) were morphologically wild, suggesting either that the process was a long slow one, or that wild asses had characteristics that were favored over domestic ones for some activities.

Sources

This article is part of the About.com Guide to the History of Animal Domestication.

Beja-Pereira, Albano, et al. 2004 African origins of the domestic donkey. Science 304:1781.

Kimura B, Marshall FB, Chen S, Rosenbom S, Moehlman PD, Tuross N, Sabin RC, Peters J, Barich B, Yohannes H et al. 2010. Ancient DNA from Nubian and Somali wild ass provides insights into donkey ancestry and domestication. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences:(online pre-publish).

Rossel, Stine, et al. 2008 Domestication of the donkey: Timing, processes, and indicators.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105(10):3715-3720.

This glossary entry is part of the Dictionary of Archaeology. Any mistakes are the responsibility of Kris Hirst.

Source: about.com

Ancient DNA from Nubian and Somali wild ass provides insights into donkey ancestry and domestication

 

Birgitta Kimura, Fiona B. Marshall, Shanyuan Chen, Sónia Rosenbom, Patricia D. Moehlman, Noreen Tuross, Richard C. Sabin, Joris Peters, Barbara Barich, Hagos Yohannes, Fanuel Kebede, Redae Teclai, Albano Beja-Pereira, Connie J. Mulligan

Abstract

Genetic data from extant donkeys (Equus asinus) have revealed two distinct mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, suggestive of two separate domestication events in northeast Africa about 5000 years ago. Without distinct phylogeographic structure in domestic donkey haplogroups and with little information on the genetic makeup of the ancestral African wild ass, however, it has been difficult to identify wild ancestors and geographical origins for the domestic mitochondrial clades. Our analysis of ancient archaeological and historic museum samples provides the first genetic information on the historic Nubian wild ass (Equus africanus africanus), Somali wild ass (Equus africanus somaliensis) and ancient donkey. The results demonstrate that the Nubian wild ass was an ancestor of the first donkey haplogroup. In contrast, the Somali wild ass has considerable mitochondrial divergence from the Nubian wild ass and domestic donkeys. These findings resolve the long-standing issue of the role of the Nubian wild ass in the domestication of the donkey, but raise new questions regarding the second ancestor for the donkey. Our results illustrate the complexity of animal domestication, and have conservation implications for critically endangered Nubian and Somali wild ass.

1. Introduction

Domestication of the donkey (Equus asinus) approximately 5000 years ago transformed ancient societies and land-based transport in Africa and Eurasia, allowing the development of mobile pastoralism and ancient overland trade routes and contributing to the growth of the early Egyptian State [1–3]. Today donkeys are essential means of transport for people living in many mountainous, desert and poor regions of the world [4,5].

Little is known, however, about domestication of the donkey. Historically it has been thought that ancient Egyptians domesticated the African wild ass (Equus africanus) although near-eastern domestication has also been suggested [6–8]. Recent research shows the importance of load-bearing donkeys to the earliest pharaohs and emphasizes the slow nature of their morphological, and probably genetic, change during domestication [3]. Research on the genetics of modern donkeys worldwide demonstrated the existence of two distinct mitochondrial haplogroups, termed Clades 1 and 2 [9–11]. Genetic variability in both domestic maternal lineages was greatest in Africa, therefore mitochondrial results did not provide support for the hypothesis of Asian domestication. Specifically, Beja-Pereira et al. [9] argued that Asiatic wild asses were excluded as progenitors of modern donkeys and proposed two separate domestication events that occurred on the African continent [9]. There are at least three possible African candidates for wild ancestors of the donkey, the Atlas, Nubian and Somali wild ass (figure 1), reflecting the fact that distinct geographical patterning does not exist in modern donkey haplogroups.

Figure 1. Map showing the distribution of (a) ancient Atlas wild ass, (b) historic Nubian wild ass and (c) historic Somali wild ass, with drawings or photos of each animal depicted below. The hypothesized extended range of ancient African wild ass across North Africa is indicated in light yellow. The locations of ancient and historic populations are identified within the range of ancient wild ass in blue (Atlas), yellow (Nubian) and pink (Somali). Modern Somali wild ass distribution is shown on the map in red. The locations for all successfully analysed samples are indicated. Image credits: (a) drawn from El Richa image in Muzzolini [47], (b) photo with permission of Powell-Cotton Museum, (c) photo Tom Pilgram.

Based on the available genetic data, it has been hypothesized that Nubian wild asses were the ancestors of donkeys of Clade 1 and that a relative of the Somali wild ass, probably extinct, was the ancestor of Clade 2 [2,9]. Archaeological data, the distribution of African wild ass, and linguistic data suggest that mobile African cattle herders domesticated the donkey in response to increasing aridity in the Sahara and the Horn [2,9,12].

In order to investigate the relationships of African wild ancestors to domestic donkey clades, additional information is needed on variability within and among ancient and modern wild ass populations [11]. African wild asses have been well documented in at least three regions of Africa, but there has been debate over the extent to which populations represent the remnants of once continuous variability versus distinct subspecies [13–15]. Nubian wild asses (Equus africanus africanus) were still fairly common in the Atbara region and the Red Sea Hills (NW Sudan) during the first half of the twentieth century AD and the Somali wild ass (Equus africanus somaliensis) existed in southern Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia (figure 1). The Atlas wild ass (Equus africanus ‘atlanticus’) was once confined to the northwestern part of the continent and probably became extinct in early historic times [13] (figure 1).

There has also been debate over whether the African wild ass once ranged into western Asia. This is complicated by a lack of reliable historic documentation of E. africanus in the region and difficulties in morphological discrimination between E. africanus and E. hemionus. In addition, the recent discovery that early dynastic Egyptian donkeys used for transport at Abydos are morphologically indistinguishable from the African wild ass [3] raises the possibility that faunal specimens attributed to wild ass in Asia could be derived from early domestic donkeys.

Historic populations of wild ass have been distinguished phenotypically by size, and the presence or absence of distinctive leg stripes and shoulder crosses [13] (figure 1). Osteological differences in size and cranial morphology have also been documented [13], but assessment of variability among these wild populations is not straightforward because there are only a few skeletons available in museum collections. Additional samples are virtually impossible to procure because Somali wild asses are critically endangered today, with perhaps as few as 600 individuals left in the wild [15], and Nubian wild asses have only been infrequently sighted since the 1970s and are therefore considered possibly extinct [16].

The small size and remote distribution of remaining populations also explains why little is known about the genetics of contemporary African wild ass. Prior to this study, there were only five published sequences in GenBank, three from Somali wild ass and two from individuals tentatively identified as Nubian wild ass [9]. To better understand variability in E. africanus populations across their former African ranges, additional samples of the remaining Somali wild ass populations as well as ancient DNA (aDNA) data on historic and ancient African wild ass have been obtained. As will be shown, archaeological and museum specimens represent an invaluable genetic repository for African wild ass.

In light of the genetic research that indicates an African origin for both clades of domestic donkey [2,9], the goal of our study was to investigate African settings for domestication of the donkey and to test the current hypotheses that (i) Nubian wild asses were ancestors of Clade 1 domestic donkeys and (ii) a relative of the Somali wild ass was the ancestor of donkeys of Clade 2 [9]. We used aDNA methods to analyse 12 ancient samples from archaeological sites in northeast Africa and Yemen, ranging in age from 3000 years ago to the early Holocene, in addition to nine tissue samples from all known historic Nubian skeletons and two Somali wild ass museum specimens collected between 1880 and 1950 (electronic supplementary material, table S1). We also collected and analysed 33 faecal and skin samples from Somali wild ass populations in Ethiopia and Eritrea. These mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) data from modern, historical and ancient specimens were combined with previously published sequences for network and phylogenetic analysis.

 

2. Material and methods

Holocene archaeological (n = 12) and historic museum (n = 11) samples of Nubian wild ass, Somali wild ass and donkey were obtained for this study (electronic supplementary material, table S1) through the comprehensive evaluation of a significant portion of all specimens in existence including: annual camel-based surveys of critically endangered African wild ass conducted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), approximately 12 skeletons of African wild ass held in world museums, and a survey of isolated donkey bones from African archaeological sites. Appropriate permits were obtained for all specimens including CITES permits for all wild ass specimens owing to their status as critically endangered (see electronic supplementary material, Background for more historical and taxonomic information on the historic samples).

Faecal samples from Somali wild ass from Ethiopia (n = 6) and Eritrea (n = 27) were collected across the species habitat range after observation of the animal (electronic supplementary material, table S1). Each sample was stored in white paper envelopes, dried for 24 h, and shipped to CIBIO-Universidade do Porto. In addition, dried skin from five skeletons of animals that died during the drought of 2006 in Eritrea was used for DNA extraction.

Samples were analysed using standard precautions for working with ancient DNA. At the University of Florida and Harvard University, analyses were performed in laboratories dedicated to ancient DNA work in which no previous work on equids had been performed. Ground bone samples were extracted with two different methods, one based on DNA binding to silica [17] and one using phenol/chloroform extraction [18]. Only one sample and the accompanying extraction blank were processed at a given time. Samples that yielded DNA were re-extracted with a minimum of one other sample being processed in between the first and second extraction of the positive samples. Museum tissue, dry skin and faecal samples were extracted with the Qiagen DNeasy tissue kit at the University of Florida and CIBIO.

For the archaeological samples, primers were designed to amplify segments of 56–158 base pairs (bps) of the most variable regions of the control region that specifically distinguish between domestic donkey clades (electronic supplementary material, table S2). Museum tissue, dry skin and faecal samples were amplified in three to four overlapping segments ranging from 158 to 308 bps in length. PCR conditions were as follows: 25 µl reaction with 1x manufacturer's PCR buffer, 2.5 mM Mg⁺⁺, 200 µM each dNTP, 1 µM of each primer, 1.5 µg BSA and 1 unit Amplitaq Gold DNA polymerase or a 25 µl reaction with 1x Bioline Short mix and 1 µM of each primer (see electronic supplementary material, table S2 for annealing temperatures). A minimum of three independent PCR amplifications were performed with each primer pair.

PCR amplification products from the ancient archaeological samples were cloned into a TOPO TA vector (Invitrogen) following the manufacturers' recommendations. Eight to 12 colonies from each amplification product were sequenced and analysed on a Beckman CEQ 8000, following the manufacturers' recommended protocol for sequencing. Amplification products from the tissue, dry skin and faecal samples were sequenced directly using the forward and reverse primers that were used for the PCR amplification. Products from a minimum of three independent PCR reactions were sequenced in both directions for the historic samples. Additional details on extraction, amplification and sequencing are available in electronic supplementary material, material and methods.

Newly reported equid sequences were used to create both a median-joining network and a phylogeny. These sequences were aligned with Clustalw from MEGA 4 software [19] and compared with previously published sequences; E. asinus NC_001788 [20], DQ44 878-DQ449 023 [10] and AY569 462-AY569 547 [9]. Sequences of 440 bps were used in the network and phylogenetic construction. In cases where ancient or historic sequences were shorter than 440 bps, but identical to previously published sequences, those sample labels are listed along with the identical (full length) previously published sequences on the network and phylogeny. NHML 1939 yielded a sequence of only 204 bps and is a new sequence, so this sample does not appear in either the network or phylogeny. Median-joining networks [21] were constructed with NETWORK v. 4.5 (http://www.fluxus-engineering.com/). Reticulations were resolved through a maximum-parsimony criterion [22]. Information on the phylogenetic analysis and estimation of time to most recent common ancestor for each clade can be found in electronic supplementary material, material and methods.

Determination of wild or domestic status of the ancient Uan Mughuggiag magnum, Os Carpale III (specimen Verona 3870, articulated with aDNA no.7), was made on the basis of morphometrical analysis. Size-based identifications of domestic versus wild ass are not reliable for the earliest periods of domestication prior to size decrease [3], but smaller donkeys can readily be distinguished from wild ass in Africa after ca 4000 cal year BP. Greatest breadth and maximum length measurements were made to the nearest millimetre using a measuring board and callipers and following conventions established by von den Driesch [23] (electronic supplementary material, table S3). Uan Muhuggiag measurements were compared with those from seven ancient donkeys, nine modern donkeys and 14 wild ass, including three juveniles. The Uan Muhuggiag mandible (Verona 3988, aDNA no.8) was aged using incisor dental eruption and wear following the sequence documented for donkeys [24].

 

3. Results

The collection of samples successfully analysed in this study covers the presumed range of Nubian and Somali wild ass over northeastern Africa and includes modern, historic and ancient specimens spanning a time depth of 3000 years. In total, three of the 12 ancient samples, 10 of the 11 historic samples and 33 modern Somali wild ass samples were successfully amplified and sequenced for the mitochondrial control region (electronic supplementary material, tables S1 and S4; all sequences are available through GenBank, HM622626-HM622669). Final analysed sequences ranged in size from 201 to 440 bps and were composed of amplicons ranging in size from 33 to 440 bps, i.e. some specimens required multiple fragments to construct an informative DNA sequence. Four historic samples were independently processed and their sequences confirmed at the CIBIO-Universidade do Porto, and one ancient sample was independently extracted and amplified at Harvard University (electronic supplementary material, table S1).

Of the ancient samples, one had the maternal genetic signature of horse and is not analysed further here. This specimen was represented by a single tooth and had been provisionally identified as donkey. In actuality, the specimen may belong to a mule, i.e. offspring of a female horse and male donkey. Two ancient specimens from the Uan Muhuggiag rock shelter in the central Sahara [25–27], a mandible with one permanent incisor erupted and a trapezoid, were also successfully sequenced. An unciform that was articulated with the trapezoid was directly AMS dated at the University of Oxford to 3160–2975 cal BP (electronic supplementary material, table S5). The Uan Muhuggiag sequences matched an historic Nubian wild ass sequence reported below (NHML1904, electronic supplementary material, table S4) and fell in Clade 1, which supports an ancestral role for Nubian wild ass within Clade 1. Furthermore, the Uan Muhaggiag sequences were identical to each other, suggesting that both specimens came from a single individual or from maternally related animals. Morphometric analysis of the Uan Muhuggiag specimens documented that they were more consistent with those of a small domestic donkey than those expected for either adult or juvenile wild ass, suggesting that the Uan Muhuggiag animal(s) was domestic (electronic supplementary material, figure S1).

Nine of the historic samples were from animals identified as Nubian wild ass on phenotypic and geographical grounds. Eight of those specimens yielded five different sequences that fell within Clade 1 (figure 2 and electronic supplementary material, figure S2). One of the five sequences was new (BSZM 1952). Four samples, two pairs of mother and foetus, had identical sequences that matched a haplotype also found in domestic donkeys. They were collected from two areas in close proximity in the Red Sea Hills. Another match to a domestic donkey haplotype was found in an animal from the Tibesti Mountains of the Sahara (RMCA31155). Significantly, the sequence from one sample from the Atbara region in Sudan (NHML1904) exactly matched a modern sequence from the eastern Sudan that had been tentatively identified as Nubian wild ass (H6; [9]), suggesting that Nubian wild ass maternal lineages survived at least until the last decade in the eastern Sudan. The geographical breadth of the successfully assayed specimens confirms the ancient range of the Nubian wild ass in Sudan and northern Eritrea and the presence of animals of Clade 1 not only east, but also west, of the Nile River as far as the central Sahara. The ninth historic sample (BSZM1963) attributed to Nubian wild ass on phenotypic grounds had a sequence identical to a haplotype found in domestic donkeys of Clade 2 (figure 2 and electronic supplementary material, figure S2).

Figure 2. Reduced median-joining network of 108 mtDNA haplotype sequences from domestic and wild asses. Coloured circles represent sampled haplotypes, while black dots represent hypothesized, unsampled haplotypes. Size of the circle is proportional to haplotype frequency and branch length is proportional to number of mutations.

The 33 modern Somali wild ass specimens fell in the same clade as previous Somali wild ass specimens (WH1-4). This clade is well separated from the domestic donkey Clades 1 and 2 and is clearly not ancestral to either clade (figure 2 and electronic supplementary material, figure S2). Only four new haplotypes were found in the 33 specimens analysed and haplotype diversity of the Somali wild ass clade is only 0.7417 ± 0.0444 (compared with 0.9309 ± 0.0102 and 0.8212 ± 0.0268 for Clades 1 and 2, respectively), suggesting that the genetic variability in present-day Somali wild ass is low. The new haplotypes are found in both Eritrea and Ethiopia, and show no geographical structure. The single historic Somali specimen that was successfully amplified came from Berbera, Somalia. Collected around 1886, it showed a sequence identical to that of one of the new Somali wild ass haplogroups (WH1) from Eritrea and Ethiopia (figure 2 and electronic supplementary material, figure S2 and table S4). This result demonstrates a degree of historical continuity in the mitochondrial variability of Somali wild ass within the region over the last 120 years.

We also calculated the coalescence time of each clade, i.e. the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA), as follows: Clade 1: 406 000 years ago (95% confidence interval 105 400–811 300 years), Clade 2: 334 600 years ago (95% confidence interval 86 100–661 300 years), Somali wild ass clade: 359 500 years ago (95% confidence interval 57 600–770 800 years). Although there may be some uncertainty in the dates owing to time dependency [28], these dates clearly predate the domestication time for donkey of approximately 5000 years ago.

 

4. Discussion

(a) Ancestors for the donkeys

The diversity and geographical variability in historic and ancient DNA together with information on modern donkey mitochondrial genetic variation provide new insights into relations among ancestral wild ass, relations of wild ass to domestic haplogroups, and the process of donkey domestication. Our results demonstrate that Nubian and Somali wild asses are mitochondrially distinct. Furthermore, we show that the historic Nubian wild asses and domestic donkeys of Clade 1 are almost indistinguishable on the basis of mtDNA; five of our historic Nubian wild ass samples had haplotypes identical to domestic donkeys of Clade 1. It is probable that the identical wild ass sequences represent survival of the originally domesticated maternal haplotypes in the wild population, although we cannot rule out the possibility that they were introduced into wild herds by feral female donkeys. Historic specimens collected by naturalists over the last two centuries verify a northern Sudanese and Eritrean distribution of Nubian wild ass in northeast Africa, but the Uan Muhuggiag and Tibesti data suggest that donkeys of Clade 1 and/or Nubian wild asses were present as far west as the central Sahara in late (pre)historic times.

When our results are combined with 98 previously published haplotypes, the topology of the network (figure 2) provides some interesting perspectives on domestication processes. The Clade 1 topology resembles that found in European and Asian domestic pigs [29] and domestic and wild reindeer [30], with several smaller nodes and wild animals interspersed with domestic. It presents an interesting example of survival of wild populations during the process of domestication giving rise to indistinct differences at the mtDNA level between wild and domestic individuals. This process has been proposed for horse, dog, pig and reindeer [30–33], but we are able to verify this conclusion for donkeys since we have multiple cases of mtDNA sequences shared by wild and domestic specimens. The Clade 1 topology is consistent with a scenario whereby the Nubian wild ass was domesticated in several areas and/or over an extended long period, with multiple recruitments from the wild, similar to the domestication process suggested for dogs and goats [34,35]. The much broader distribution of Nubian wild ass in former times and likely domestication by cattle-herders who ranged widely over the Sahara from as early as 8900–8400 cal BP provide geographical, social and temporal contexts for these processes [36–38]. Moreover, the use of ‘morphologically wild’ donkeys for heavy transport at Abydos in ancient Egypt ca 3000 BC [3] has already illustrated a slow process of donkey domestication with late morphological and genetic change.

Introgression with wild ancestors is especially probable among donkeys because they are not herd animals and are not intensively managed by African pastoralists [2]. Pastoralists who keep donkeys for transport particularly value strength and reproductive potential in their animals and recruit both males and female donkeys to their herds [2]. Furthermore, capture of wild ass through trapping is historically documented and illustrated in African rock art [39–41], but is indiscriminate with respect to sex (for additional information, see electronic supplementary material, Background).

We conclude that donkeys of Clade 1 have a long history in the Sahara, that a Nubian wild ass was their ancestor, and that it is probable there was interbreeding between wild and domestic forms over a long period of time with recruitment of several maternal haplotypes from the wild.

(b) The contribution of the Somali wild ass to the domestic gene pool

Our extended mitochondrial dataset from free-living Somali wild ass shows that Somali wild ass are distinct from Nubian wild ass and domestic donkeys of both Clades 1 and 2 (figure 2 and electronic supplementary material, figure S2). Given the extensive haplotype networks found in Clades 1 and 2, it is surprising to find so few Somali wild ass haplotypes after increasing the sample size by an order of magnitude. The low variation and large sample size of Somali wild ass make it unlikely that additional lineages will be identified and, thus, make Somali wild ass a less probable candidate for the ancestor of Clade 2 than previously thought [9,11]. Furthermore, the equal distance of the three major clades to each other diminishes the possibility that the ancestor of Clade 2 lies in either of the other two clades. The very old coalescence times of the three clades reflect the long period of time before donkey domestication and suggest that substantial genetic structuring, fragmentation and/or geographical isolation of wild ass mitochondrial variation may have developed prior to domestication. As a result we cannot rule out the possibility that wild ass in northeast Africa may have had additional, yet unrecognized, genetic substructure and particularly that Clades 1 and 2 may both have Nubian-like wild ass ancestors (see electronic supplementary material, Background for additional details).

In addition, the observation that wild ass/donkey mitochondrial variation may have undergone significant reductions over time also raises the possibility that the ancestor of Clade 2 belonged to an extinct population. Archaeological data suggest the Holocene ranges of African wild ass were substantially more extensive, the presence of wild ass in the central and eastern Sahara being evidenced by rock engravings [42] and skeletal remains [2,26,43], which is consistent with our genetic results. Thus, there are several possibilities for the geographical origin of the wild ancestor of Clade 2. In addition to northeastern Africa, candidates include the ancient range of the Atlas wild ass in the Maghreb [13] and the coast of Yemen, where specimens identified as early domestic donkeys or wild ass have been excavated ([44]; see also [2]); however, our ancient samples from these regions did not yield genetic material. Additional aDNA research in Africa and Asia as well as Y chromosome or nuclear genetic data on donkeys and extant African wild ass are needed to pinpoint the locus of domestication of Clade 2.

(c) Patterns of domestication and conservation implications

The findings presented in this study clarify the role of the Nubian wild ass in the domestication of the donkey but raise new questions regarding the second ancestor for the donkey. Evidence for domestication of several Nubian haplotypes, multiple recruitments from the wild, and ongoing gene flow in Clade 1, contrasts with a simpler domestication process starting from fewer ancient founders for Clade 2. These distinct patterns fit with recent research on other livestock species showing multiple domestication events with differing histories, social contexts and timelines [9,11,29,30,35,36,45,46]. Our findings also have several implications for conservation. (i) Nubian wild asses are distinct from Somali wild asses based on mtDNA, a result that indicates the need for separate management of Nubian and Somali populations. (ii) The finding that maternal lineages of the Nubian wild ass may have survived in the eastern Sudan until the 1990s implies that Nubian wild asses are not extinct or became extinct very recently, and reinforces the need for surveys and management plans for eastern Sudan and northern Eritrea. (iii) Extant Somali wild ass in Eritrea and Ethiopia shows an absence of geographical structuring of genetic variation as well as low haplotype diversity, which may reflect past bottlenecks in ancestral populations in which short-term crashes wiped out many haplotypes. These results suggest that captive breeding populations of Somali wild ass already sample much of the available mitochondrial diversity. Our findings represent a valuable contribution to debates regarding variability, phylogeny and management of extant but critically endangered African wild ass [13–15]. Our research also underscores the need for further studies of the nuclear and Y chromosomal DNA of extant populations and for more specimens for aDNA analysis.

 

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by National Science Foundation grant BCS-0447369 (FM), FCT grants (SFRH/BPD/26802/2006, SFRH/BPD/17822/2004, and PTDC/BIA/BDE/64111/2006 (ABP) and grants from Wildlife Trust, Saint Louis Zoo, Basel Zoo, Liberec Zoo and Sea World and Busch Gardens Conservation Fund (PDM). The authors would like to thank four anonymous reviewers for many useful comments. We thank V. Costa for help during faecal DNA extraction and T. Schilling for assistance with figure 1. We are indebted to F. Alhaique, the late A. Bietti, L. Chaix, L. Khalidi, C. Lewis, R. Meadow, W. van Neer, T. Webber, W. Wendelen and to the institutions and individuals listed in electronic supplementary material, table S1 who generously provided material or assisted in collection of samples for this study.

Source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/278/1702/50.full

The Donkey

Name
Ass is the correct name for members of Equus asinus, just as horse is the correct name for Equus caballus. However, the ass is more commonly called a donkey in North America. The name donkey comes from the old English word dunkey meaning an animal that is greyish-brown in color. Burro, the Spanish word for ass, usually refers to the feral donkeys that roam wild in various parts of North and South America.

Origins
According to Anthony Dent "there is no breed of ass that can be regarded as a specific and original American development. . . " For the most part it would appear that donkeys were brought to South America and Mexico by the Spanish Conquistadores in the 16 th century and have since slowly moved northward. The one exception may be American Mammoth jackstock, which was developed in the 18 th century from large imported European asses of Catalonian, Maltese and Poitou types.

Terminology
A male donkey is called a jack. A female donkey is a jennet (sometimes written as jenny, but both pronounced the same). Castrated male donkeys are donkey geldings. Young donkeys are called jack foals or jennet foals.
The equine species can interbreed and will produce hybrid offspring that are usually infertile. The most common hybrids are the mule and hinny which are produced by the following combinations:

Classification
In Canada donkeys can be registered with The Canadian Donkey and Mule Association, an organization founded in 1976 and incorporated in 1988 under the Animal Pedigree Act (1988).

Because there are no specific North American donkey breeds, the Canadian Donkey and Mule Association recognizes the height classification given to donkeys in the United States. The donkey sizes recognized in Canada for registration purposes are:

• Miniature: under 36 inches high at the withers when mature
• Small Standard: from 36.01 to 48 inches
• Large Standard: over 48 inches and under 54 inches for jennets; over 48 inches and under 56 inches for jacks and geldings
• Mammoth: 54 inches or over for jennets; 56 inches or over for jacks and geldings.

Conformation of miniature, small and large standard donkeys
Before breeding quality donkeys (jacks and jennets) are accepted into the stud book of the Canadian Donkey and Mule Association, they must be inspected once they reach four years of age.

Regardless of whether a donkey is selected for breeding, show or work purposes, a quality animal should have proper proportions and conformation. For centuries, donkeys were and still are work animals in many parts of the world. The conformation of donkeys therefore must be appropriate to, that of working animals.

Head
Short rather than too long, but in proportion with the rest of the animal. Straight or slightly dished profile. Eyes large, of mild expression, set low, wide apart and clear. Nostrils well shaped and open. Teeth in good condition with no undershot or overshot jaws. Jaws generous, round and open. Head deep through the jaws, tapering to a small muzzle. Ears long, clean cut, set upright, carried firmly and alertly pointed. An appearance of strength and masculinity in jacks and femininity in jennets.

Neck
Neck well proportioned to the rest of the animal, joined to head and shoulder correctly and smoothly. Crest of the neck should be fairly straight, not ewe-necked, nor fallen to the side or excessively fat. Neck firm, well fleshed and strong. Mane usually short and upright, but may fall to the side as with the horse mane.

Body
Withers practically nonexistent, but if noticeable so much the better. Shoulder slightly sloping, although more upright than the horse. The ribs should be well sprung and the girth deep. Chest relatively wide, not narrow. Back short and level, or slightly dipped in the case of older animals or in foal jennets. A very long, out of proportion back is undesirable. Loin strong, broad and firmly coupled. Quarters long, wide, and as flat as possible. Should be well fleshed with plenty of length between point of hip and point of buttock. When viewed from the rear the thicker all parts of the quarters and thighs are the better. Top of croup rounded, not extremely sloping. Tail well set, not low, covered with short hair and completed by a tuft of long hair.

Limbs
Limbs must be straight and true, with adequate bone in proportion to the type of animal. Knees flat and wide, cannon bones short. Hocks set low, strong, clean and correct shape. Characteristics desirable in the limbs of the horse are also desirable in the donkey, except pasterns of the donkey are more upright.

Feet
Hooves should be even, of good shape and well trimmed. They should be hard, clean, smooth, elastic and tough. The size must be adequate to the donkey, but true to the typical donkey hoof which is narrow. No tendency to low heels. Front foot oval, hind foot more elongated and frog small but well developed.

Movement
To be level and true, willing and active.

General Conformation of Mammoth Jackstock
Disposition
Kind, gentle and placid.
Mature jacks (four years old or more) must stand 14 hands high or over; jennets must be 13.2 hands high or over. They may be the heavy-boned draft type or the more refined saddle type. In either case they should be large, well balanced animals of good conformation. General conformation is similar to that of the Standard donkey with particular attention given the following:

Head
Well shaped not coarse, carried alert and well balanced. Ears should be long, well set and carried erect. Eyes should be large and open. Profile straight or slightly roman. The jack should have a strong jaw and heavily muscled neck.

Neck
Ewe neck is not permissible. Neck should be straight, joined to head and shoulder smoothly, and in good proportion with the rest of the animal.

Body
Shoulders should be well sloped, the chest wide and deep, and the ribs well sprung to give good heart girth. Any animal whose body shrinks in size behind the shoulders (wasp waist) or in front of the hips (herring gutted) should be rejected. The back and loin should be straight and strong. They should be short coupled, smooth over the hips and carry a well muscled croup. This heavy muscling should also be evident through the chest, forearm and gaskin.

Limbs
Set and quality of the legs is important and should be as nearly correct as possible. Bone and joints should be large, but as clean and flat as possible. A heavy-boned draft type Mammoth may have 10-inch or more front cannon bone measurement, while a lighter boned, more refined saddle type Mammoth may have an 8- to 9-inch measurement.

Feet
The feet should be deep, round and large with evidence of good wearing qualities. Long weak pasterns (coon-footed) should be avoided.

Movement
While some Mammoth Jackstock are naturally fairly sluggish, action should be straight and level with as much alertness and style as possible. Good action is correlated with quality and proper conformation. Sluggishness and dragging of the feet should be discriminated against.
Proper proportions, conformation, balance, symmetry and refinement are qualities to be looked for in every type and size of donkey.

Common Conformation Defects
Head
Coarseness, roman nose; short rounded ears; lop ears; head ill proportioned to the rest of the animal; parrot mouth (overshot) or monkey mouth (undershot) jaws.

Neck
Ewe neck, fallen crest; Too short.

Body
Long weak back, too straight back or roach back; narrow chest and rump; flat ribs, light in the girth, wasp waist; goose rumps or narrow rumps; peaked rump (rafter hips); weak coupling.

Limbs
Cow hocks, sickle hocks; over or back at the knee; insufficient bone to be in proportion with the animal; toe out or in.

Feet
Malformed hooves; cracked or broken hooves; long, weak pasterns (coon footed).

Movement
Crooked action, winging or interfering; plaiting or rope walking

Colors
Donkeys come in a wide variety of colors; dun-grey is the most common. Grey donkeys often have dorsal and shoulder stripes that are black, brown or dark grey, usually the same color as the mane. These markings are more common in the smaller donkeys and are thought to indicate a common ancestry with Nubian Wild Ass (Africa). True Mammoths rarely have dorsal and shoulder stripes. Zebra stripes or horizontal stripes on the legs may indicate common ancestry with the Somali Wild Ass (Africa).
Black and brown are the next most common colors. The brown color can vary from pale oatmeal to deep chocolate. More rare are the red or blue roan donkeys which have white hairs interspersed with chestnut (red roan) or black hair (blue roan). Equally rare are the broken colored or spotted donkeys that combine white patches with black, brown, roan or grey patches.

Standard donkey markings are generally a white nose, eye rings and a white underbelly. Completely black donkeys, or grey donkeys with unusual black noses are seen occasionally.

Differences Between Donkeys and Horses
Some notable differences between donkeys and horses or ponies are listed below:

Physical Features
Conformation
Ears: The long ears of the donkey, which are well supplied with blood vessels, are a desert adaptation for cooling the body.

Eyes: The larger eyes of the donkey provide a wider field of vision than those of the horse.

Tail: The unusual tail resembles that of a cow because it is covered with short body hair except for the tuft on the end.

Chestnuts: Ergots or chestnuts are practically nonexistent on the hind legs of donkeys.

Vertebral column: The donkey, like the Arabian horse, lacks the fifth lumbar vertebra in the spinal column normally found in other equine skeletons.

Hoof: Donkeys have hooves that are more upright, smaller, tougher and more elastic than those of horses. Consequently donkey hooves rarely need to be shod.

Coat:: Donkeys have coats that tends to be longer and coarser than that of the horse, although texture can vary among North American donkeys. It is important to note that donkeys do not have the protective undercoat that horses do; therefore, they are more susceptible to climatic conditions such as rain, wet snow and wind. Insulation from heat or cold is largely created by air pockets between the longer hairs.

Voice: The distinctive bray.

Longevity intelligence
Donkeys have a life span of 30 to 50 years, which is greater than that of the horse.

Larger brain capacity is evidenced by the fact that donkeys require bridles with a larger browband than that needed for a comparable size of horse or pony. Donkeys are reported to have developed an intelligence superior to that of the horses, but its instincts give rise of different behavior, in certain circumstances, which many misconstrue as stubbornness. For example, it is not the nature of the donkey to run in panic when frightened as the horse instinctively does. Under the same conditions donkeys are more likely to stop, stand still and study the situation carefully to determine the best course of action.

Reproduction
The donkey is reportedly more prepotent but less fertile than the horse. Whereas the conception rate of the horse is reported at approximately 60 to 65 per cent, the conception rate of the donkey is considered to be lower than that of the horse. Donkeys have an average gestation period of 12 months compared to 11 months in horses. Gestation in the donkey can vary from I 1 to 14 months. Production of twins, though rare, is more frequent among donkeys than horses.

Nutrition
Donkeys browse as well as graze. Donkeys will eat coarse herbage, marsh grass, young thistles and shrubs in his pasture, feeds that most horses will not eat.

Shelter
As desert animals donkeys do best in a temperate climate, although they will adapt to cold climates if provided with proper shelter and extra feed. They do not mind the cold. Donkeys dislike rain, and are susceptible to pneumonia and bronchitis when chilled. In Canada during late spring, summer and early fall an open front shed will do for shelter if it is well bedded with dry straw. In winter, depending on the region of Canada, donkeys may be shut in a barn, but allowed to run out on good days, or they may be loosed housed in a comfortable shelter facing away from the prevailing wind. Some donkeys like snow, but others suffer from the cold. Guard against chilling by the wind.

Wet snow can melt down into a donkey's coat, soaking the hair and causing the animal to chill. Snow should be scraped off a donkey when it is put inside the barn. During a rain, the horse will have water pouring off its back, but the donkey's coat will become sodden with the rain as it soaks down to the skin. Donkeys therefore needs adequate shelter during the cold rains of spring and fall.

Pasture
Donkeys can graze coarser pasture than a horse. Lush pasture is not recommended because donkeys have low energy requirements and are prone to obesity and certain metabolic disorders such as laminitis (founder) and hyperlipaemia if allowed free choice high quality pasture.

Allow each donkey from one-half to one acre of pasture per month. This will vary with the quality and amount of growth in the area, and the size of the donkey. Obviously Mammoths will need larger areas than Miniatures or Small Standards. If possible divide pastures and alternate from one pasture to another. When a pasture is at rest the long grass and weeds can be trimmed down well before the animals are to be returned to it. Harrowing the pasture will help to spread the manure and reduce parasite problems.
Donkeys will make a place where they can take dust/sand baths during warm weather.

Pasture fencing can be page wire, plain or barbed wire (beware of cuts from the latter), electric or a combination of both. Donkeys quickly learn to be very respectful of electric fence.

From mid-May to early September, pasture will provide enough to meet the nutrient requirements of donkeys unless drought conditions exist. Make the change from dry food to grass slowly in the spring, to avoid health problems such as grass founder. Allow donkeys on pasture for thirty minutes per day at first then gradually increase the length of time each day, donkeys should be turned out after they have been fed dry feed. After a week, the donkey can stay on pasture all the time.

Feed and Water
Provide fortified trace mineralized salt in block or loose form in the pasture or by the shelter. Check with the district agriculturalist to learn which minerals are deficient in the feeds of the region (e.g. selenium, copper, zinc, etc). These must be added to diets for donkeys, usually in the salt or mineral mix.

Fresh water is essential. Donkeys are very particular about water being fresh and clean. They will drink from I 0 to, 25 litres per day.

High quality hay should be fed in winter or when pastures are depleted in the fall. Legume hay (rich in alfalfa or clover) is not recommended as the only hay for donkeys because of its high protein levels. Timothy, meadow grass, brome grass or mixed legume-grass hays are suitable. Hay composed of 50 per cent timothy and 50 per cent alfalfa is suitable for donkeys that, are growing, pregnant, nursing and during the coldest months of winter.

When available, silage may be fed in small quantities with the balance of the feed to be made up of hay. Beware of mildew (grey dust) or mold on hay - They are poisonous!

Concentrate feeds, such as grain, are seldom needed by donkeys. However, growing youngsters and pregnant or nursing jennets may receive grain rations depending on their body condition. Donkeys need grain if they are use work (driving, packing, predator control in sheep, etc.).
Prepared horse feeds provide supplemental energy, protein, minerals and vitamins required by donkeys. Supplements formulated for cattle, pigs or poultry should not be used, because they may contain additives that are toxic (e.g. Rumensin).

The average Small Standard donkey (approximately 44 inches tall and weighing 400-500 lb) that does little or very light work in winter, requires only two handfuls of whole oats per day and some hay. Watch donkeys closely to determine whether they need more or less feed. Youngsters under the age of two and older donkeys that are more than 20-years-old have been found to do well on rolled oats or a 50 per cent rolled oat and 50 per cent rolled barley mix. Adult donkeys over the age of two years do well on good quality, clean whole oats.

An obese donkey should be fed only hay (2-4 flakes per day). A thick roll of fat along the crest of the neck indicates obesity in donkeys. This roll of fat is extremely hard to reduce once it has formed. Eventually the excess weight of the neck roll will cause it to fall over to one side of the neck, creating an unsightly malformation. Avoid placing the obese donkey on a starvation diet in the hope of rapidly removing excess weight. The loss of more than 2 kg (4.4 lb) per month can precipitate metabolic disorders such as hyperlipaemia according to The Professional Handbook of the Donkey.
Adult donkeys in good condition will eat the same amount of hay, plus the ration of concentrates mentioned above. Naturally the amounts fed will vary with the size and condition of the donkeys. Mammoths or miniatures need correspondingly more or less feed.

A rough guideline is to feed a total weight (hay plus grain ration) of 1 kg of feed per 50 kg of body weight (two pounds of feed per hundred pounds of body weight).

For example:
A 450 lb donkey

• at rest - approximately 4 kg (9 lb) total feed (hay plus grain) daily.
• at work-approximately 5kg(11.25 lb) total feed daily

The more hard work required, the greater the amount of grain usually given providing the donkey does not become too energetic and hard to handle. For example:

A 450 lb donkey

• at rest - 0 to 1 lb grain plus 7-8 lb hay daily.
• at work - 1 to 2 lb grain plus 9-10 lb hay daily.

A 950 lb Mammoth donkey

• at rest - 0-2 lb grain plus 15-18 lb hay daily.
• at work - 4-5 lb grain plus 16-18 lb hay daily.

The donkey is more of a browser in his eating habits. Therefore it is important to supply the donkey with free choice good quality barley or oat straw, along with his ration of hay and grain. Research at The Donkey Sanctuary in England has shown that straw in the ration may help the donkey produce natural biotin to improve skin and hoof condition. However, straw is a low quality feed and must not be used as a substitute for hay in the diets of donkeys.

Any animal that is frequently fed tidbits will spend its life looking for them and will soon learn, just as a horse or pony, to nip the hand with no food in it. Feed any treats in a tub on the ground while petting and talking to the donkey.

Grooming and Health Grooming
Donkeys enjoy being groomed. Brush them with a fairly stiff brush in the direction the hair grows. Be gentle with the ears, do not twist or hold them tightly. In spring, a shedding blade is useful for loosening the thick winter coat. Do not be too hasty to help shed the winter coat. Donkeys take up to two months longer to shed their hair coat than horses and will easily catch a chill if the coat is shed too early in the spring. Use caution when grooming in winter. Grooming destroys the natural air pockets in the coat that provide insulation, so groom only on warm days. Clipping is not recommended unless adequate protection from inclement weather is provided.

In summer, grooming is almost hopeless because donkeys take dust baths. This natural method of bathing is used by animals that do not like water.
Watch for the donkey that rubs its coat, especially at the tail head - it may have lice. If evidence of lice is seen, check with a veterinarian for the best preparation to remove the lice.

Hoof care
Clean out hooves regularly. Remember donkey hooves are very elastic and do not wear down like those of other equines. If left untrimmed they grow to astounding proportions and such neglect can cause an animal to be permanently crippled. Ideally hooves should be trimmed every four to eight weeks depending on age and speed of growth. The hooves of foals generally grow faster than those of adult donkeys. Keep feet short and neat.

Deworming
Deworm donkeys three to six times per year, using any of the equine paste wormers currently on the market. If the presence of parasites is suspected, a veterinarian should do a fecal test to determine exactly what type of worms are present and how best to treat for them. Rotation of deworming products is recommended. Unless internal parasites are removed by regular deworming, donkeys will suffer internal tissue damage from migrating parasites, which may considerably shorten their life span.

Vaccinations
Donkeys should be given an annual injection of a four-way equine vaccine every spring. The injection provides immunity against eastern and western equine encephalitis, equine influenza and tetanus, which are all potentially fatal equine diseases. Check with a veterinarian about starting a vaccination program.

Goals of the Breeder
Breeders must establish what the goals of their breeding program are before purchasing any stock. Breeders can select stock of known ancestry with the assistance of The Canadian Donkey and Mule Association (1988), which operates the only registry for Canadian donkeys and mules, selection from.

Examples of possible goals for the breeder:

• The production of heavy-boned draft type Mammoth jackstock.
• The production of red roan Mammoth jackstock to provide red roan jacks for the production of sorrel draft mules from Belgian mares.
• The production of refined, saddle type Mammoth jackstock for riding, harness work or to yield jacks for saddle mule breeding.
• The production of spotted Small or Large Standard donkeys for show or fine harness work.
• The production of sturdy Large Standard donkeys for packing or riding.
• The production of well conformed Miniature donkeys, or colourful spotted Miniatures.

Keep in mind that every breeder must work towards proper conformation. Do not be tempted to chose breeding stock because it has a unique color or size if defects such as crooked legs, angular rumps, ewe necks or jaw deformities are present!

The Choice of Jack and Jennet
Donkeys can suffer from many conformation defects ( See Conformation Defects). These are largely due to generations of indiscriminate breeding which have promoted and accentuated such conformation defects as crooked legs, narrow chests and jaw defects. The novice breeder should visit as many donkey breeders and donkey shows as possible to study and understand donkeys as work animals before investing in breeding stock.
The purpose of registration is to record individual animals so that their type and ancestry are known. Breeders who keep good records are likely to be helpful in getting the novice breeder established. Such records, as well as the opportunity to view both parents of a sale animal, are a distinct advantage when purchasing stock.

Methods of Breeding
Pasture breeding
The simplest way to bred donkeys is to turn a jack out with a group of jennets and allow them to breed naturally. However, there are some possible disadvantages:

• a jack that is not in excellent condition may not successfully breed all the jennets.
• risk of injury to the jack by aggressive jennets, or vice versa.
• risk of injury to foals in the herd. The jack may try to kill any jack foal born.
• risk of infection being spread in an uncontrolled situation.
• difficulty in determining dates of breeding and foaling dates unless the donkeys are closely observed.

Hand breeding
A jennet can be placed in a breeding chute or stall and bred with a jack that is controlled by a handler. Advantages are:

• minimal risk of injury to jack and jennet. The foal can be placed close by so the jennet is not worried about her offspring.
• the jack's energy can be conserved and is not wasted chasing jennets.
• risk of disease is reduced as both jack and jennet can be washed thoroughly before breeding.
• exact dates for breeding can be recorded and dates for foaling can be predicted.

Disadvantages of this method are the requirement of extra care, handling, and facilities for regular teasing, and breeding of the jennets. Some jacks are slow breeders, so the process can be time consuming.

Artificial insemination
Semen collected from a jack can be used to artificially inseminate one or more jennets. The main advantages of this technique are the lowered risk of infection, and the possibility breeding more jennets. The disadvantages of AI for many small breeders is the costs involved for a trained technician, or the courses and purchase of equipment to establish them in equine AI.
Jacks can be precocious at an early age, and young jennets often show their first heat cycles early in the yearling year. However, it is unwise to breed donkeys that are less than three-years-old because they mature slowly. An immature jennet that becomes pregnant may suffer permanent damage to the skeletal and muscular system and may produce foals with congenital malformations. Physically immature jennets may also lack the maturity to be good mothers.

Signs of Estrus
Jennets do not normally show estrus throughout the winter months, but often start to show signs of estrus in March, and then continue to cycle normally every 21 to 28 days until conception occurs, or towards year end in November or December. When in heat the jennet will lay her ears back, and repeatedly open and close the mouth in a mouthing reflex, sometimes drooling. The jennet will squat to urinate more frequently and bray more often than normal.

Gestation and Care of Jennet During Gestation
Gestation
Jennet will carry a foal an average of 12 months before giving birth. however, the length of gestation ranges from 11 to almost 14 months. Considering the length of gestation it is wise to consider the time of year that the jennet will foal, and condine the breeding season from May 1 to August 1 in cold climates. Either side of these dates will require a suitable barn and good foaling facilities to ensure the survival of the foal and well being of the jennet.

Care
Jennets should maintain a quiet lifestyle during pregnancy with regular exercise either at liberty, or riding and driving if they are used to such work up until the last quarter of pregnancy. Hard or fast work should be avoided during the last quarter of pregnancy. Hard or fast work should be avoided during the last quarter of pregnancy.

Regular hoof care is important. Regular deworming is necessary to maintain jennets in good condition for foaling. Check with a veterinarian before giving any deworming medication in the last quarter (3 months) of gestation. Some products are safe during this time period and others are not.

Unless jennets are thin, the feeding program can remain unchanged until the last quarter(3 months) of gestation. Some products are safe during this time period and others are not.

Unless jennets are thin, the feeding program can remain unchanged until the last quarter (3 months) of gestation when the fetus grows the most. Excessive feed early in pregnancy will create obesity and potential foaling problems. Increased feed should be maintained from the final quarter of pregnancy throughout the first three months after birth. Maximum milk production occurs in the three months after foaling.

Foaling
Jennets are rarely consistent in showing the same signs of impending birth from one pregnancy to the next. However, jennets will generally show some or all of the following signs:

• The udder gradually enlarges about 30 days before birth of the foal. As the birth date approaches the udder becomes enlarged and remains enlarged.
• The teats enlarge to the very tip several days before birth.
• A waxy secretion that forms a cap over the end of each teat may form up to 48 hours before birth. Some jennets actually drip milk in the last 24 to 48 hours. Do not milk the jennet at this stage.
• Softening of the pelvic ligaments creates a groove along either side of the spinal column in the loin area toward the tail head. This sign may go unnoticed in a first foaler or a jennet with a winter coat.
• The vulva becomes very soft and loose during the last week or two of pregnancy, and gradually enlongates as birth approaches. Birth is usually in matter of hours when the lips of the vulva are swollen out to be flush with hindquarters.
• A jennet may be unfriendly towards other animals and prefer to stand by itself.
• The jennet will show restlessness as the foal turns and prepares to move into the birth passage. At this stage she may look thinner, walk the stall and get up and down a number of times. Sometimes birth occurs immediately after the foal has turned, or sometimes the jennet will wait for another day or so.
• Just before birth, the jennet's tail will be carried out away from the body, lifted and usually kinked to one side. She may frequently pass small amounts of soft manure or urinate.

Foaling
Jennets not only show variation in the signs before foaling, they can foal at any time of the day or night, so close observation is important.

Jennets will be restless, walk the box stall, lay down and get up repeatedly. When the cervix is fully dilated, the water bag protrudes into the vagina and ruptures releasing amniotic fluid which lubricates the passageway for the foal.

The jennet will then start to strain hard and a pair of tiny forefeet will soon appear. As more of the front legs emerge the nose of the foal will be seen resting on the front legs. This is the normal birth position. Do not hurry the jennet or pull on the foal's feet. Unless there is a problem in the presentation of the foal, the jennet will handle the birth unaided in 15 to 30 minutes.

If the jennet has been straining hard for 20 minutes and no foal appears, or the front feet appear but no nose, or only one foot shows, call a veterinarian. These signs of malpresentation require expert assistance if both the jennet and foal are to come through the process of birth alive and well.

As the neck appears, the head may start to move and break the membrane that encloses the foal. If it does not, tear the membrane open and wipe the foal's nostrils clear of mucus to help it breathe.

Do not cut the navel cord. The jennet will break the cord when she gets up. She will then lick her foal dry. This licking action is important, especially with first foaling jennets, because it stimulates the mothering instinct of the jennet and prevents chilling of the newborn. The jennet will usually expel the afterbirth (placenta) within half an hour. If the afterbirth has not been expelled within 6 to 8 hours call for veterinary assistance. A retained placenta can cause infection or laminitis (founder).

Care of Newborn Donkey Foals
Once the umbilical cord has broken, dip the foal's navel stump in a five per cent iodine solution to prevent umbilical infection. The jennet and foal should be watched to make sure the foal stands and nurses. It is vital to the foal's health that it drink the colostrum, or first milk, which is rich in antibodies. If the foal is the jennet's first offspring, she may not want to nurse and it may be necessary to hold or tie the jennet while helping the foal to nurse for the first time.

Watch for the foal to pass the meconium or first manure. These hard pellets are often passed as the foal struggles to stand before nursing. If a foal does not pass the meconium during the first 12 to 24 hours and shows signs of raising its train and straining without results, then a veterinarian should be called to administer an enema or mineral oil to stimulate the passage of the meconium.

Donkey foals have a thick, fluffy coat which fives the appearance of warmth and hardiness compared to horse foals., but such is not the case. donkey foals are not very hardy and require suitable shelter especially for the first two weeks of life. Foals that are soaked by rail easily become chilled and may contract bronchitis or pneumonia, which can be fatal. If this occurs bring the wet foal into the barn, rub it down will with towels and leave the foal inside until it is thoroughly dry.

Between the ages of two weeks to a months foals start nibbling at the jennet's feed. At the time a foal can be fed a commercial foal ration separately in a small pen constructed with an opening just large enough for foals to enter. Foals will learn to use the creep feeder within tow to four weeks.

Diarrhea may be seen in foals at age of nine to ten days when the jennet starts her "foal hea". The condition usually disappears within a few days, and the foal is unaffected. If the condition persists or the foal is obviously neither feeling well or nursing normally then a veterinarian should be called.
Donkey foals can be weaned at four to six months of age. Weaning at three months or earlier is not recommended. Foals that are weaned early will require extra care and attention.

Rebreeding
Jennets return to heat nine to ten days after foaling, however breeding is not recommended during the first heat. The rate of conception at this time is low, and the reproductive tract may not have returned to normal. Jennets are usually far more concerned about their young foals at this time and are more likely to be upset by the presence of the jack. On the second or third heat after foaling, jennets are more relaxed and receptive to the jack, foals can be kept in a pen or box stall close by the breeding area with few problems, and conception is more likely to occur.

The time lapse involved in rebreeding, combined with the length of a jennet's gestation, means that breeders will likely obtain less than of one foal per year. These factors make it more logical to plan for three foals in a four year period.

Source: http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex598

Management Recommendations for Donkeys and Mules

 

Mule Terminology, Characteristics and Differences

There are estimated to be 50 million donkeys (Equus asinus) and as many mules worldwide. They can be used for such applications as riding, driving, flock protection, companion, breeding, and training calves. Donkeys and mules are not small horses. They have anatomical and physiological differences compared to horses and their care requires special consideration. Structural differences compared to horses mean that they require specialized tack and harness for riding and driving (1).

Terminology

Jack: Male donkey

• Jennet or Jenny (both pronounced the same): Female donkey
• Donkey gelding: Castrated male donkey
• Mule: The offspring of the mating of a jack with a mare (female horse)
• Hinny: The offspring of the mating of a stallion (male horse) with a jennet

Mature animals can be further designated into the following classifications based on height measured at the withers:

• Miniature: under 36 inches
• Small Standard: from 36.01 to 48 inches
• Large Standard: over 48 inches and under 54 inches for females; over 48 inches and under 56 inches for jacks and geldings
• Mammoth: 54 inches or over for females and 56 inches or over for male

For more information on registration guidelines, contact the Canadian Donkey and Mule Association (http://www.donkeyandmule.com/).

Anatomical Differences Between Horses and Donkeys

A number of anatomical differences can challenge the first-time donkey owner and their veterinarian. Two of these include:

1. An obscured jugular furrow (the place where blood samples are taken or tranquilizers are given). The cutaneous coli muscle is much thicker than in the horse and hides the middle third of the jugular vein. It is easier to find the upper third of the jugular.
2. The nasolacrimal duct of the donkey is located on the flare of the nostril rather than the floor of the nostril as it is in the horse (2).

Behaviour

Donkeys and mules are known to be very stoic animals that are slow to show pain and discomfort. While these characteristics may be desirable in many cases, it can lead to problems identifying a sick animal. The attributes we assign to a donkey being stubborn and having a lack of intelligence are actually from their natural responses to new experiences and logical interpretation of a situation. Being tough animals, they will kick easily and swiftly (2). Donkeys and mules are very social animals and will benefit tremendously from the companionship of other animals, such as horses, cattle, sheep or goats.

Authors: Heather McClinchey MSx; Jeffrey Sankey , BSc, Ontario Veterinary College, Unversity of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada and Dr. Bob Wright, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Fergus, Ontario, Canada

Source: about.com

Mule Facts

What makes a mule different from a horse?

First, let’s clarify what a mule is. A mule is the offspring of a male donkey (a jack) and a female horse (a mare). A horse has 64 chromosomes, and a donkey has 62. The mule ends up with 63. Mules can be either male or female, but, because of the odd number of chromosomes, they can’t reproduce. However, a male mule should be gelded in order to make him a safe and sociable animal.

Except for the long ears, mules look very similar to horses, but their muscle composition is different. Mules have smoother muscles than horses. Think of a football player’s muscle build compared to that of a ballerina’s. Both are very strong, but the mule has greater physical strength for its size, and more endurance. A mule gets its athletic ability from the horse and its intelligence from the donkey. Donkeys and mules have been labeled “stubborn” for centuries, but it is really only an abundance of common sense and a strong desire for self-preservation that might make them inclined to resist. Mules and donkeys actually have a natural attraction to humans. When treated with patience, kindness and understanding, they learn to trust and obey. If they are treated with force and abuse, they are not likely to comply with your wishes. If only a mule could talk, most people would be surprised at how smart they really are!

 

What does the name “mule” mean?

The word “mule” can be used for any hybrid, and is a cross between two species of equine: the horse or pony (Equus caballus) and the domestic donkey (Equus asinus). The term “mule” is used for either the cross of male donkey on female horse, or the cross of female donkey on male horse, although the latter cross is more correctly known as a “hinny.” Mules and hinnies each have one horse and one donkey parent, however the two crosses generally differ from each other in appearance and stature, and—to some extent—temperament.

 

What is the history of mules in the United States?

In addition to being the father of our country, George Washington was an enlightened agriculturalist—a visionary who, early on, saw the true value of the mule. But right from the beginning, he faced a major obstacle. At the time, the Spanish Government prohibited acquisition of the legendary Andalusian donkey. However, in 1785, King Charles III of Spain presented Washington with a gift of two jacks and two jennets. One of the jacks died during the voyage, but the survivor, named Royal Gift, went on to sire an American dynasty that reshaped the very landscape of this country. By the early 1900s the mule population in this country had exploded to nearly six million. But with the advent of engine-powered vehicles, the mule’s once-critical role in agriculture and industry diminished. It’s estimated that, by the late 1960s, fewer than 10,000 mules existed in the United States, and many of those languished—unused, unnoticed and in danger of fading from our culture altogether.

But a handful of mule and donkey lovers were determined to keep that from happening. Among them were Paul and Betsy Hutchins who, in 1967, founded the American Donkey and Mule Society, an organization dedicated to the protection and understanding of longears. They also publish The Brayer, a bi-monthly magazine with an international subscriber base. Mules and donkeys have enjoyed resurgent popularity during the last 40 years. Today, annual events such as Bishop Mule Days in Bishop, Calif., host more than 30,000 people and 700 mules. Mule events, stock shows, trade publications and even television programs like Meredith’s series, Training Mules and Donkeys, continue to foster interest in these amazing animals.

What are the common sizes of donkeys or mules?

Division by size rather than breed is due to unclear ancestry in the New World. Donkeys were turned loose by explorers and interbred.

Donkeys:

• Miniature = 36″ or less at the withers
• Small Standard = 36.01″ up to 40″
• Standard = 40.01″ up to 48″
• Large Standard = jennets are 48.01″ up to 54″, jacks are 48.01″ up to 56″
• Mammoth = jennets are 54.01″ and over, jacks are 56.01″ and over

Mules:

• Miniature = 50″ or less
• Saddle mule = 50″ or more
• Draft = bred from a draft horse breed

Where are donkeys and mules registered?

Today, donkeys and mules are registered with several different registries, the largest being the American Donkey and Mule Society. Other registries include the American Mule Association and Standard Jack and Jennet Registry.

What are mules and hinnies?

The mule is a hybrid cross between a male donkey (jack ) and a female horse (mare). Because the mule most often demonstrates the best traits from each parent, he possesses what we call hybrid vigor. The mule inherits from the donkey his incredible strength, intelligence, patience, perseverance, endurance and surefootedness from the jack and his equine beauty, athletic ability and speed from the horse.

The hinny, or hinney, is also called a mule. However, the hinny is the hybrid cross between a male horse (stallion), and a female donkey (jenny, or jennet). The hinny is different from a mule in very subtle ways. For instance, the hinny is a somewhat slower and more meticulous mover than the mule. He inherits his way of going from the jennet as does the mule, which tends to be a little faster, more energetic and more agile—like the mare. The hinny, because of his meticulous way of going, is actually better in very steep, rocky terrain and, especially, in loose rock, and will not tire as quickly as a mule. Gaited hinnies are preferable in this kind of terrain where there is little opportunity to gallop because they have a smooth, more ground-covering gait.

The hooves of a hinny tend to be more donkey-like—narrow, oval and more upright—where the hooves of a mule will look more horse-like; a little rounder (although still oval), with slightly more angle than the donkey hoof, but not as flat, round and angled as the horse’s hoof. On both hinnies and mules, the hooves should be trimmed more upright and the heels should be left longer than the hooves of the horse.

The hinny will also eat a variety of different kinds of shrubs and bushes to sustain himself, where a mule will be more selective, again because of the influence of the female parent. This makes the hinny more desirable to those people living in remote mountain areas with little vegetation.

Both the mule and the hinny have more endurance by far than the horse, and are more resistant to parasites and disease, require less feed for good health, have tougher hooves than the horse, and have an incredible sense of self preservation that keeps them safe, which is often mistaken for stubbornness. The horse has a flight reflex when startled and the donkey has a freeze reflex; mules and hinnies can exhibit both the freeze and flight reflexes, depending on their own unique personalities and the situation at hand.

When breeding for mules, since the jacks are generally smaller and of slighter build than a horse, mule foals are generally smaller than horse foals and the mare has very little problem foaling. When breeding for hinnies, one needs to be cautious, as the jennets are smaller and of a slighter build than mares. A large stallion could produce a foal that would be too large and difficult for the jennet to easily foal. Matching the size of the parents is much more important with hinnies. It is more difficult for a jennet to settle after being bred to a stallion than it is for a mare to settle after being bred by a jack, so breeding for hinnies can take significantly longer.

• Donkey + zebra = Zebrass or Zedonk
• Horse + zebra = Zorse, or if pony dam, Zony
• Jack + mare = mule
• Stallion + jennet = hinny
• Jack + mule = jule, or donkule
• Stallion + mule = hule
• Male mule = horse mule, or john mule
• Female mule = mare mule, or molly

A hinny resembles a horse more than it does an ass. It looks more like a horse with long ears and looks very much like a mule. The hinny has been used as a saddle animal from antiquity and is more difficult to produce than the mule, because the jennet does not conceive well with the stallion.

Certain breeds of mares do not conceive as well with the jack as other breeds.

Although hybrids are typically sterile, two documented cases of fertility do exist. One was known as Old Beck from Texas A&M, bred first by stallion, Pat Murphy, and yielded the hule, Pat Murphy, Jr. She was bred a second time to a jack and produced the jule, or donkule Kate. The other was Krause, belonging to Arthur Silvester in Champion, Nebraska. She was bred to a jack twice and foaled first with Blue Moon, and then with White Lightning. More numerous cases have emerged with the new technology and better national and international communication.

Mules are also used in the equine industry for embryo transplants.

There are no documented cases involving fertile male mules.

 

What are the physical characteristics of the Ass?

• A distinctive bray.
• Long ears.
• Short, upright and thin mane.
• Hair only on the end of its tail.
• Tends to look more horse-like.
• May come in a variety of colors.
• Hooves are narrow and box-like, unlike the horse’s hoof. They’re upstanding, and made for rock and mountain climbing. They are tough and elastic, non-chipping and can grow to long lengths when the animal is on soft ground and the hooves are left untrimmed.
• Long body with long, wiry muscles.
• Short and straight back. Lacks upstanding withers and is excellent for packing and weight bearing.
• Bone is dense and hard.
• Gestation is 12 months, whereas the gestation period for a horse is 11 months.
• Usually has a white belly and muzzle, and circles around the eyes.
• Colors are much like that of a horse.
• They can come in more colors than a horse, even an Appaloosa.
• Mule’s conformation falls somewhere in between that of the donkey and that of the horse.
• Mules inherit best traits from both its sire and its dam.
• Mules get their athletic ability from the horse, while strength and intelligence come from the donkey.

What are the mental characteristics of the Ass?

• Highly intelligent, alert, curious and affectionate, when not worn down by bad conditions (i.e., cruel treatment, bad shelter, bad food and water or overwork).
• Quick to learn. A well-trained mule is calm, tolerant, loyal, affectionate, obliging and patient.
• Sensitive. Mules and donkeys might be mistaken as being stubborn when they’re actually afraid or confused.
• Has common sense and not prone to panic or carelessness.
• Can recognize danger.

According to Mr. Longears publisher Tom Constantino: “Jesus chose a donkey colt, unridden, uninfluenced by man, for his triumphant entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday. In doing so, He recognized the donkey’s instinctive role of servitudes to man and God. Time and time again since the beginning of recorded history, the donkey has proved its quality of character. Its noble instincts are special. It was not created to be hunted for food or sport, and it has no natural enemies. It is the duty of the world to understand the true depth of the donkey, and to care for this noble creature.”

Source: http://luckythreeranch.com

What Can a Donkey Do?

 

Many people like to own these fine animals for their wonderful personalities and their fine pet qualities. There is probably no more adorable baby in the animal world than the little donkey with its long ears and long legs and sweet face and fuzzy coat. However, there are many uses for donkeys. Here are some of them for your information:

SHEEP (OR GOAT) PROTECTION. A single donkey, usually a jennet, sometimes a gelding (jacks rarely work because they can be too aggressive with lambs) is introduced to the herd and undergoes a bonding stage. After it has bonded with the sheep, it will protect them against canine predators (fox, coyote, dogs) as it would one of its own. This is extremely beneficial in areas where the sheep have many acres to graze. The advantage of the donkey over the guard dog is that they can eat the same food as the sheep so they don't have to be fed separately. The donkey will also bed down with the sheep at night. Given a strange sound it will voice a warning to the flock which alerts them to danger. Then the donkey will chase and often trample the predator. Miniature donkeys are not usually large enough to handle the coyotes, and mammoth donkeys are usually too slow.

HALTER BREAKING. The standard size donkey is also very adept at halter breaking young calves (polled or dehorned) and yearling horses. The donkey wears a collar that is connected to the halter of the animal that is being taught to lead. The animals are then turned loose in an enclosure, always under supervision. Where the donkey wants to go, it will go. The colt or calf has no option but to follow. By allowing the donkey to perform the unpleasant task of lead training, the "trainee" doesn't associate people with this particular stressful situation. In fact, when you release the colt or calf from the donkey, they are usually very willing to follow you. Articles are available on this particular form of halter training from the American Donkey and Mule Society.

COMPANIONSHIP. The donkey is a wonderful companion to foals at weaning time. The donkey is allowed to run with the mare and foal prior to weaning, then kept with the foal when weaning takes place. The foal has a calm, steadying influence from the donkey and looks to it for support. This calmness is transferred to the foal and the trauma of separation from the dam is reduced. As most donkeys readily come up to people this behavior is duplicated by the foal. Not only have you reduced foal stress, but you have instilled in the foal a friendly attitude toward people.

STABLE COMPANION. This is very similar to the foal companion, only in this case the donkey takes on the responsibility of another animal's well-being. Nervous horses have been known to calm down with a donkey companion as a stall or pasture mate. With horses recovering from surgery or injury or with nervous horses such as race or show horses, the donkey seems to have a calming effect. Almost as if the donkey is saying "It's O.K., we'll get through this together". The miniature is often used for this purpose since it does not take up much room in the stall of a race horse or injured horse.

HANDICAPPED RIDING PROGRAMS. The donkey has shown time and time again how wonderful it is with children and handicapped people. In many areas, especially England, the donkey is used extensively in riding and animal companion programs for the physically and mentally handicapped. Their small stature, slow and thoughtful nature and affectionate disposition make them ideal for this purpose when properly selected and trained. Both the person and the donkey know they are special together, and the bond that develops between the two is quite unexplainable.

BABY SITTER. The donkey naturally loves children. While there are a few exceptions, the donkey is not usually a biter or kicker. They have the patience of Job and therefore are ideally suited to being around children. For use around children, the handicapped and for most uses (except jacks kept for breeding) a jennet or gelding is the preferred animal.

WORKING DONKEY. The donkey is used all over the world for an infinite variety of jobs. Here in this country, some common uses are recreational riding; recreational driving, both single and in teams; packing, many backpackers use a donkey (which they often call a burro), to carry the heavy load since the animals walk at about a human's foot pace and are such enjoyable companions on the trail; skidding or pulling things on the homestead such as firewood, trash, etc.; pulling a sledge, travois or wheeled cart to carry things for the small farm such as barb wire for fencing, trash, or anything that needs to be moved; the donkey can also carry such items on its back in panniers if that is more convenient than pulling it; showing, many adults and children enjoy showing their animals in the donkey and mule shows around the country; the different kinds of work your animal can do to help you are limited only by your imagination.

MULE BREEDING. All sizes of donkeys are used to breed mules. Large mammoth jacks up to 16 hands in height are used to breed draft mules. Medium sized mammoth and large standard jacks are used to breed saddle and pack mules. Standard jacks are often used to breed miniature mules in the larger size ranges which are used in teams for pulling wagons and for children to ride and use. Miniature jacks are mated with miniature horse mares or Shetland ponies to produce very tiny mules for pets, single driving and just for fun.

Source: http://www.donkeys.com

Basic facts about donkeys

 

Donkeys, zebras and mules all differ somewhat from horses in conformation. The most noticeable difference is of course the ears. Donkeys ears are MUCH longer in proportion to their size than a horse’s. The necks are characteristically straighter in the longears, and most donkeys and all zebras lack a true wither. The croup and rump are also a different shape in the donkey and it’s hybrids, lacking the double-curve muscled haunch. The back is straighter due to the lack of withers. Dipped or swayed backs are a conformation fault, unless in old animals or brood jennies who have produced many foals, and not due to genetic factors.

The mane and tail in the donkey are coarse. The mane is still and upright, rarely laying over, and the tail is more like a cow's, covered with short body hair for most of the length, and ending in a tasseled switch. Donkeys do not have a true forelock, although sometimes the mane grows long enough to comb down between the ears toward the eyes. Because the mane is stiff and sometimes flyaway, many donkeys, especially show stock, wear their manes clipped short or shaved close to the neck.

Hoof shape varies as well, donkey hooves are smaller and rounder, with more upright pasterns. The legs should have good bone, but many donkeys of common breeding may appear to have long thin legs with tiny feet. Larger Asses such as the Poitou or Andalusian types may appear opposite, with huge, heavy shaggy legs and large round feet. Good legs and feet are essential for breeding Mules, as a good foot is much preferable to a large body on tiny stick legs and feet.

The vocal qualities are the frequently remembered differences in the long-ears. The donkey’s voice is a raspy, brassy Bray, the characteristic Aw-EE, Aw-EE sound. Jacks especially seem to enjoy braying, and will "sound off" at any opportunity.

Although many donkeys are the familiar gray-dun color, there are many other coat shades. Most donkeys, regardless of coat color, will have dorsal stripes and shoulder crosses, dark ear marks, as well as the "Light Points" -- white muzzle and eye rings, and a white belly and inner leg. Leg barring ("garters" or "zebra stripes" may be present as well. Small dark spots right at the throatlatch, called "collar buttons" are a good identifying marking and occur occasionally. These typical donkey markings may be passed on in part or in whole to Mule or Hinny offspring.

Colors in the donkey range from the gray shades of gray-dun to brown, a rare bay, black, light-faced roan (both red and gray), variants of sorrel, albino-white (also called cream or white-phase), Few-spot white, and a unique Spotted pattern. True horse pinto, horse aging gray, horse Appaloosa, palomino and buckskin do not occur in the donkey. The more unusual colors are the Dappled Roan, where the face and legs are light and the body is marked with "reverse" dapples (dark spots on a light background, as opposed to the horse dapple where the dapples themselves are light on dark), frosted gray (with light faces and legs and some white hairs in the coat) the pink-skinned, blue-eyed albino white, and the few-spot white. The few-spot white is off of spotted lines, and can throw either more Few-spots or true spotted colts. The animals are best defined as a spotted animal where the skin is spotted but the color does not necessarily show through on the coat. Few-spots can be identified from albino white by checking the skin around the eyes and muzzle. Albino/creams will have blue eyes and true pink skin, while few-spots will have dark eyes, dark "eyeliner" and dark spotting on the skin. Another unusual variant of the spotting line is the "tyger spot" pattern. These donkeys vary from the typical large spots over the ears, eyes, and topline. The body will be covered with small round spots resembling the Appaloosa type.

Donkeys come in a variety of sizes from the Miniature Mediterranean (under 36 inches) to the elegant Mammoth Jackstock (14 hands and up). The rare French Poitou donkey, characterized by it’s huge head and ears, and very thick, shaggy, curled black coat, can stand 14 to 15 hands high. (There are fewer than 200 purebred Poitous left in the world today.) The types of donkeys are labeled by their sizes: 36" and under, Miniature Mediterranean; 36.01-48", Standard; 48.01" to 54 (jennets) or 56 (jacks), Large Standard; and 54/56" and over, Mammoth Stock.

Donkeys are healthy, hardy animals but should receive the same vaccinations and wormings as a horse. Their hooves also need periodic trimming. They often live for 25 or more years.

Donkeys can be used just like horses under saddle and in harness, although donkeys are more laid back and self-preserving in nature. They prefer to do what is good for the donkey, which is not always what the human thinks is best (especially when it comes to getting their feet wet.). They are very friendly, and their nature makes them excellent for children. Donkeys can perform all the gaits horses or mules do (yes, some are even "gaited", exhibiting a single-foot gait), but galloping is usually not on the program unless dinner is being served. Donkeys can also make wonderful guard animals -- a donkey gelding or jennet will take care of an entire herd of cattle, sheep or goats -- the natural aversion to predators will inspire the donkey to severely discourage any canine attacks on the herd. Dogs and donkeys usually don’t mix, although they can be trained to leave the house or farm dog alone!

Source: http://www.donkeys.com